Friday 17 April 2009

Al-Ghazali on Love: Reading Kitab Al-Mahabbah of Ihya’ Ulum Al-Din

It is needless to say that al-Ghazali is among the greatest Muslim scholars, if not the greatest. He, for Muslims, is the hujjah al-Islam (the proof of Islam) and for Westerners is comparable to figures such as Augustine, Maimonides, Pascal and Kierkegaard. This acknowledgment from opposite civilizations, so to say, illustrates to us how big his influence is in both worlds. It is interesting to note that even Montgomery Watt, one of eminent Orientalist, takes al-Ghazali as sample to show functionality of the intellectuals within society, i.e, their contribution to society. He names al-Ghazali as “... one of the greatest intellectuals of Islamic society”. Another orientalist, Samuel Zwemer, writes a book which subtitle reveals deep respect to al-Ghazali, A Moslem Seeker After God: Showing Islam at its Best in the Life and Teaching of Al-Ghazali, Mystic and Theologian of the Eleventh Century.
This writing merely aims at briefly describing al-Ghazali’s life, while underlining some important facts which have impact on his sufism; al-Ghazali’s works which have been skillfully listed by Abd al-Rahman Badawi in his book; discussing generally al-Ghazali’s magnum opus, Ihya’ Ulum al-Din; studying his concept of love as elaborated in his Kitab al-Mahabbah, being part of Ihya’ Ulum al-Din comparing with the concept of love according to other Sufis; and finally drawing conclusion from that, insha Allah.




LIFE OF THE PROOF OF ISLAM
His complete name is Muhammad son of Muhammad son of Muhammad son of Ta’us Ahmad al-Ghazali al-Tusi al-Shafi’i. Among his surnames are Abu Hamid, the proof of Islam (hujjah al-Islam), the ornament of religion (zayn al-din) and many other attributes attached to him by his admirers. He was born in 450/1058 at Tus. Later on, he got his early education in Islamic jurisprudence at Tus to al-Imam Ahmad al-Radhakani. Afterward he went to Jurjan where he became a disciple of al-Imam Abu Nashr al-Ismai’ili. Here he started writing primarily on Islamic jurisprudence, the result of which undoubtedly is al-Ta’liqah fi al-Furu’. He also studied with the Sufi master Ahmad Ali al-Farmadhi, once pupil of Abu al-Qasim al-Qushayri, the latter is the author of al-Risalah which is a standard book in sufism. Another Sufi who had influenced al-Ghazali in this stage of his life is Yusuf al-Nassaj, about whom al-Ghazali say “At the beginning of my career, I knew nothing of the spiritual states of the righteous and the stations of the gnostics until I associated with my Shaykh Yusuf al-Nassaj in Tus ...”. These facts explain the early influence on al-Ghazali in matter of sufism.
Decisive time in his life came when he arrived in 419/1077 at Nishapur in which he studied with the eminent scholar Abu al-Ma’ali al-Juwayni, surnamed Imam al-Haramayn (the leader of two Holy cities), under whose supervision al-Ghazali studied multi-discipline knowledge. He learned Islamic jurisprudence of Shafi’ite school, principles of Islamic jurisprudence, dialectic, logic, theology, and read philosophy. He remained student of Imam al-Haramayn until Imam’s death in 478/1085.
After his master’s death, al-Ghazali went to Vizier Nizam al-Mulk who used to gather the great Muslim scholars and the Sufis to learn from. In 484/1091, Nizam al-Mulk appointed al-Ghazali, at 34, to teach in the famous al-Nizamiyah school. At this time, al-Ghazali’s fame become so widespread, that, it is said, four hundreds of great scholars of the time came to his lectures. This period of his life was also marked by productivity, in which he wrote many books in different disciplines and did not stop reading, especially books of the Sufi. This restless pursuit of knowledge sequentially will change his life dramatically and resulted in his pilgrimage to Mecca with intention not to go back to Baghdad.
The turning point of al-Ghazali’s life which changes entirely his life and then has deep influence on Muslim world started at 488/1095, in which he went on a pilgrimage to Mecca, and afterward went to Sham where he lived for ten years. In this era, he spent his time mostly in solitude and refining soul, as Sufi would call it. Resulting from this solitary life are many books, most notable of which is Ihya Ulum al-Din (revivification of religious sciences). After spending ten years in solitude, al-Ghazali went back to his native land, Tus. In 499/1106, after strong insistence from the Vizier and consultation with a number of Sufis, al-Ghazali taught again in Nizamiyah school.
Not long after having taught in Nizamiyah, he decided to go back to Tus where he established college for students and khanqah for Sufis. He died at fourteenth of Jumada al-Akhirah 505/1111, while learning two collections of Prophetic Traditions, that of al-Bukhari and Muslim. May Allah give him peace.

AL-GHAZALI’S BOOKS
Al-Ghazali had, and still has, played manifold roles and significantly influences many parts of Muslim world. He is an Islamic jurist (faqih), a theologian, a philosopher—though he destructed philosophy—and a Sufi. It is as the late Grand Sheikh of al-Azhar Mustafa al-Maraghi said that “When al-Ghazali is remembered, it does not occur to our mind only one man (with specific ability), on the contrary, several men with particular capacity come come to mind. Come to mind, at once, al-Ghazali of expert in fundamental of Islamic jurisprudence (al-usuli al-hadziq), al-Ghazali of Islamic jurist (al-faqih al-hurr), al-Ghazali of theologian and the leader of (practice of) Prophetic tradition (al-mutakallim imam al-sunnah), al-Ghazali of sociologist who knows the world’s condition (al-ijtima’i al-khabir bi ahwal al-alam), al-Ghazali of philosopher who opposes philosophy and unveils within it falsity, al-Ghazali of educator, and al-Ghazali of Sufi and ascetic”. So far as testimony of al-Ghazali prolificacy is concerned, we will find not only that of Muslim but also from Western community. Eric Ormsby, commenting a period between 1094-5 within which al-Ghazali wrote no less than eight or nine works, writes “... I can think of no other example in intellectual history, East or West, of such intese and proliffic engagement over shorr so short a span of time, and with such fruitful results”.
His influence can be seen until now through his extensive works on various fields. Abd al-Rahman Badawi classifies al-Ghazali’s works into that which al-Ghazali’s authorship is certain; works which is not certainly written by him; works which is more probably not written by him; works which have different titles or have been separated; works ascribed to al-Ghazali which is in fact not his (manhulah); works which identity is not known (majhulah); and manuscripts which are attributed to him. Here, I will list only his books of which his authorship is certain, according to Badawi, in Islamic jurisprudence and its principles and works in sufism. The choice of mine which to display is somewhat arbitrary.
In Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh) not only he writes books on Islamic jurisprudence but he writes several books on principles of Islamic jurisprudence (usul fiqh). As to the first, he writes al-Ta’liqah fi Furu’ al-Madhhab (probably being the first to be written as related in stories about his earliest study), al-Basith fi al-Furu’ which is said to have been a summarized version of his master’s book Nihayah al-Mathlab fi Dirayah al-Madhhab, al-Wasith, al-Wajiz, and Khulasah al-Mukhtasar wa Naqawah al-Mu’tasar. These books occupy important place in the chain of Islamic jurisprudence books of Shafi’ite school and mostly had been written during early part of his life. Concerning the second al-Ghazali writes—as listed by Abd al-Rahman Badawi in his Muallafat al-Ghazali—al-Mankhul fi al-Usul, Shifa’ al-Ghalil fi al-Qiyas wa al-Ta’lil, Kitab fi Mas’alah Kull Mujtahid Musib, Tahdzib al-Ushul, Kitab Asas al-Qiyas, and al-Mustasfa min Ilm al-Usul.
Among the first to be written by al-Ghazali concerning sufism, following Badawi’s list, is Mizan al-Amal which was written before his period of solitude. On this subject, after that, al-Ghazali wrote Ihya’ Ulum al-Din, al-Maqsad al-Asna fi Sharh Asma’ Allah al-Husna, Bidayah al-Hidayah, Kitab al-Arba’in fi Usul al-Din, Kitab al-Madlnun bih ala Ghayr Ahlih, al-Madlnun bih ala Ahlih, Kimiya’ al-Sa’adah (written in Persia), Ayyuha al-Walad (of Persian origin translated and given this name by another scholar), al-Risalah al-Wa’ziyyah, al-Risalah al-Ladunniyah, Mishkat al-Anwar, al-Kashf wa al-Tabyin fi Ghurur al-Khalq Ajma’in, Tablis Iblis or Tadlis Iblis, al-Munqidh min al-Dlalal wa al-Mufsih an al-Ahwal or wa al-Muwsil ila Dzi al-Izzah wa al-Jalal, al-Imla’ ala Mushkil al-Ihya, al-Istidraj, al-Durrah al-Fakhirah fi Kashf Ulum al-Akhirah, Sirr al-Alamayn wa Kashf ma fi al-Darayn, Asrar Mu’amalat al-Din, and Minhaj al-Abidin ila Jannah Rabb al-Alamin. Among these books, his masterpiece is undoubtedly Ihya’ Ulum al-Din.

REVIVIFYING RELIGIOUS SCIENCES
Badawi lists 109 places in which Ihya’ manuscript is there. He also mentions books written in defending Ihya’, in refusing Ihya’, its commentary, its abdrigments, all of which are thirty nine. added to this list is a number of translations and studies mostly done in Western countries. Ormsby describes it as “A book like no other ”. The reason for this is because “It ranges from the most minute and mundane of details ... to the most lofty subject” and “It is simultaneously a compendium of law, sacred tradition, theology and philosophy, and Sufi lore and theory, as well as a vivid, if inadvertent, depiction of a world”.
This great book is divided into four quarters (rubu’), each of which is comprised of ten books. The number forty has significant meaning as as is repeatedly used in the Holy Qur’an to describe something merit, such as the story of Prophet Moses. In Sufi circle, the number forty means days in which the wayfarer (salik) must go through at the beginning of his Path. The first quarter is the matters of worship (ibadat), which consists of book of knowledge, book of pillars of faith (qawa’id al-aqa’id), book of secrets of ritual purity (asrar al-thaharah), of prayer and its importance (al-salah wa muhimmatiha), of almsgiving, of fasting, of pilgrimage, book of etiquette of reciting Qur’an (adab tilawah al-Qur’an), book of recollections of God name (adhkar) and free prayers (da’awat), and book of supererogatory and extracanonical devotions (tartib al-awrad wa tafsil ihya’ al-layl). The second quarter deals with customs (al-adat), which concerns with daily life’s matter. The books of this quarter are book of etiquette of eating (kitab adab al-akl), of marriage, of earning one’s living and engaging in business (al-kasb wa al-ma’ash), of the lawful and unlawful, of relation with friends and relatives (al-ulfah wa al-ukhuwwah wa al-suhbah), of seclusion (al-uzlah), of traveling (al-safar), and the use of music (al-sam’ wa al-wajd), of enjoining good and forbidding bad, and of daily life and ethics of Prophet Muhammad (al-ma‘ishah wa akhlaq al-nubuwwah).
After dealing with external aspects in two previous quarters, al-Ghazali elaborates internal aspects in two sequent quarters. In the third quarter, he explains things leading to destruction (al-muhlikat), which is made up of book of mysteries of the heart (kitab ‘ajaib al-qalb), of exercising soul and refining characters (riyadlah al-nafs wa tahdhib al-akhlaq), dangerousness of appetites for food and sexual intercourse (afat al-shahwatayn al-bathn wa al-farj), on the weaknesses of the tongue (afat al-lisan), on anger and envy (afat al-ghadb wa al-hiqd wa al-hasad), on censuring worldliness (dhamm al-dunya), on avarice (dhamm al-bukhl wa hubb al-mal), on hypocrisy and love of fame (dhamm al-jah wa al-riya’), on pride and vanity (dhamm al-kibr wa al-‘ujb), and on self-deception (al-ghurur). In the fourth quarter, al-Ghazali describes things leading to salvation (al-munjiyat), which is comprised of book of repentance (kitab al-tawbah), of patience and gratitude (al-sabr wa al-shukr), of fear and hope (al-khawf wa al-raja’), of poverty and asceticism (al-faqr wa al-zuhd), of asserting God's unity and trusting in Him (al-tawhid wa al-tawakkul), of love, longing, intimacy, and contentment (al-mahabbah wa al-shawq wa al-uns wa al-ridla), of intention, sincerity, and purity of intention (al-niyyah wa al-sidq wa al-ikhlas), of self-examination and contemplation (al-muraqabah wa al-muhasabah), of meditation (al-tafakkur), of death and the life to come (dhikr al-mawt wa ma ba’dah).
All these books are usually started, after opening section, with Qur’anic and prophetic quotations and sayings of pious people of the past giving ground for what is discussed. After giving enough basis on which to build, al-Ghazali starts to discuss what he want to do in each chapter. Taking such steps, he tries to set up three authorities, that is, of the Holy Qur’an, of Prophetic Tradition, and of Sufi masters. The order by which al-Ghazali arranges Ihya’ in progression manner from the humblest obligation to the loftiest one reveals that each new theme depends on the previous without having to neglect the first. It is, thus, hierarchical and circular at once.

REACHING THE ULTIMATE GOAL: LOVE AS THE CULMINATION OF STATIONS
The complete title of section in which al-Ghazali explores his theory of love is book of love and longing and intimacy and contentment (kitab al-mahabbah wa al-shawq wa al-uns wa al-ridla), being a sixth book of quarter of (explanation of) things leading to salvation (al-munjiyat). This book contains eighteenth following chapters: explanation of evidences from Shara’ for servant’s love to God; of real meaning of love, its causes, and to find real meaning of servant’s love to God; of that the only One who deserves love is God; of that the greatest and highest pleasure is knowing Him (ma’rifah), of cause of excellency of looking (nazar) in the hereafter’s pleasure over knowing (ma’rifah) in this world; of causes for strengthening love God; of cause of people gradation in love; of cause for people lack of knowledge of Him; of meaning of longing for Him; of His love to servant and its meaning; statement on signs of servant’s love to God; explanation of meaning of intimacy with God; of meaning of heart’s widening (inbisath) fruiting from prevailing intimacy; statement on meaning of contentment in God’s destiny, its real meaning, and its virtue; explanation of the real meaning of contentment and its possibility in things contrary to natural desire; that prayer does not negate contentment; of that escaping from places of sins does not negate contentment; and of stories about lovers, their statements, and their unveilings (mukashafat). From this long list chapters, relevant sections to be read are the first two sections and tenth section. The first is important for grasping Shari’ah and Sufi tradition basis on which al-Ghazali build his theory of love. The second part is elaboration of servant’s love according to al-Ghazali’s theory of love. The tenth section is to explore God’s love according to this theory.
For al-Ghazali love is the ultimate station toward which the previous stations, such as repentance and asceticism, is directed and from which the succeeding stations, like longing and intimacy, origin. He even goes further as to say that love to God and His Messenger is an obligation. In response to those people who deny the existence of love and interpret love, when occurs in the Holy Qur’an and Prophetic Tradition, to be the obedience, he says “How can it be obliged what does not exist and how can love be interpreted with obedience whereas, in fact, it follows from it and is its fruit. To prove this fact, he provides evidences, as he usually does Ihya’, from the Holy Qur’an, Prophetic Tradition, and sayings of the past pious.
Among the clear statement in the Holy Qur’an which convey to us the existence of Divine Love and servant’s love is “God loves them and they love Him”. Still, servant’s love has degrees as in “But those who believe love God more ardently”. The case is more clear when it comes to Prophetic Tradition, as the Prophet saw., in many Traditions, characterizes love as prerequisite for belief (iman). He saw. also commands his followers to love God, saying “Love God for blessings he has given you and love me for God loves me”. One of the Prophet’s prayer is “O God, give me your love, love of those who love you, love of things that make me closer to you. And make your love dearer to me than cold water”. After quoting verses of the Holy Qur’an and Prophetic Traditions, al-Ghazali proceeds with recording some sayings of Abu Bakar al-Siddiq, al-Hasan al-Basri, Abu Sulayman al-Darani, and even Prophet Isa as. Keeping in mind various citation made above, love is already plain thing (amr zahir), as al-Ghazali put it, and the obscurity only occurs in its real meaning, which will be the subject of al-Ghazali’s elaboration.
Al-Ghazali mentions four basic principles to understand love. The first is that love is impossible without knowing (ma’rifah) and perception (idrak) or, to put it differently, both are preconditions for love. Since without knowing and perceiving thing, one cannot love that thing. Therefore, animal’s love is inconceivable for it has no faculty for knowing and perceiving as human being has. The objects perceived (mudrakat) can be either compatible with one’s nature and, thus giving pleasure to him; or in conflict with one’s nature and paining him; or neither both. Thereby, everything giving pleasure to someone is his beloved (mahbub); what one perceives to be painful, he hates it; what is neither the first nor the second is neither beloved nor hated. Then, love is the inclination of one’s nature toward object which gives pleasure (mayl al-tab‘ ila al-shay’ al-mulidhdh).
The second is that since love follows knowledge and perception, then it is imperative that it is divided according to the faculties of knowledge and perception. Every faculty has its own pleasure in its different object. Eyes love beauty, ears love beautiful sounds, and so on. To support this, al-Ghazali reports Prophetic Tradition: “It was made dear (hubbiba) to me three worldly things of yours, i.e., perfume and women. And my spiritual pleasure (qurrah ‘ayni) is made within prayer”. And the strongest faculty to know and perceive is inner faculty which can be referred to as reason (al-aql), light (al-nur), or heart (al-qalb). It follows, from the fact that inner perception is the stronger compared to that of five senses (al-hawass al-khamsah), that one’s inclination toward what is perceived through internal faculty is more powerful and more perfect. It is only those who cannot use their inner sense to perceive divine things will deny the existence of divine love.
The third principle is about explanation of causes which bring about love. The first cause is human being’s natural inclination to love him self, which means his love to his continuous existence and his hate to his non-existence. It also means his love to his perfect existence. From this results love safety of one’s organ, son, family, property, and friends. This love is not for the sake of themselves (la li‘ayaniha), but because their connection with his own interest (lirtibathi hazzih). T The second cause of love is doing good (ihsan). Because it is natural character of human being to love, i.e., to be inclined to, someone who is doing good to him (muhsin). Love caused by doing good is closely related to the that of first kind, that is, to love one’s self. The third to give rise to love is love to people who do good to others although do not do good to the lover. The fourth factor for is love for a thing for virtue of itself (lidhatih), which is true love and guaranteed to be eternal. He gives example like one’s love for beauty, for every beauty is loved by one who perceives it and this love is for the sake of that beauty not for something external to that beauty. The fifth cause is hidden affinity (munasabah khafiyyah) between lover and beloved, for there might be two persons who love each other not because of beauty nor interest (hazz), as the Prophet said: “spirits are regimented battalions (junud mujannadah)”, those who know one another (ta’arafa) associate familiarity together (i’talafa), while those which do not know one another (tanakara) remain at variance (ikhtalafa). Finally, since the Prophet has said that “Indeed God is beauteous and loves beauty”, one to whom His beauty has been revealed will certainly love Him.
The fourth principle is about explanation of beauty. According to al-Ghazali beauty is everything that is perceived by any faculty of perception as beautiful, i.e., giving pleasure. Generally speaking, he defines beauty as “the presence of object’s possible and befitting perfection” (an yahdlura kamaluh al-la’iq bih al-mumkin lah). And everything, sensible or not, has its own specific definition of beauty which is suited for it. The horse beauty is not the same as human beauty and so is the case with other beauties. Closing this section, al-Ghazali says that if all these causes unite in one person, then, love will indeed be multiplied and since these causes are impossible to be united perfectly other than in God, it follows that God is the only One who really deserves love.
As to divine love to human being, al-Ghazali starts his elaboration by quoting Qur’anic verses and Prophetic Traditions which to justify the divine love. He cites “He loves them and they love Him”, “Indeed God loves those who fight for His sake in line”, and “God loves those who repent and those who cleanse themselves” and Prophetic Tradition, to cite the most important, “When my servant constantly draws near to me by works of supererogation, then do I love him, and once I started to love him, I become his eye by which he sees, his ear by which he hears, and his tongue by which he speaks”.
He insists that divine love is real (haqiqah) not metaphorical (majaz). However, love’s significance when attributed to Him is not the same as that attributed to creatures, that is, one’s inclination toward object that gives pleasure and conditioned by causes mentioned above. It is also the case with other God’s attributes. Divine love, then, must be interpreted (mua’wwal) to mean unveiling the veil (kashf al-hijab) from servant’s heart so that he may behold Him with his heart and to mean His strengthening (tamkinuh) for him to draw close to Him. Ultimately, it is His bringing near (taqribuH) from himself by erasing from his sin and purifying his self from worldly dirties and unveiling the veil from his heart so he may be able to contemplate Him (yushahiduH) as he sees Him by his heart. Therefore, this nearness should be understood not in terms of space and time but in good qualities.
If we compare al-Ghazali’s theory of love, we will find that it resembles that of Sufis before him. Al-Kalabadhi records many sayings of Sufis one of which is that of al-Junayd defining “Love is hearts’ inclination”, which al-Kalabadhi interprets as “when one’s heart is inclined to God and to what belongs to Him without pretension (takalluf)”. Al-Qushayri in his book interprets God’s love to his servant as “His will to have blessing upon him”. However, unlike al-Ghazali, he regards it as state (hal). Similar to al-Qushayri, al-Sarraj considers love as state rather than station. He defines condition of love as “When one looks at what God has given him, and sees with his heart to His proximity to him ... and contemplates with his faith and his real certitude (haqiqah yaqinih) to ... His eternal love to him, then he loves Him”.
As a conclusion we may say that al-Ghazali’s theory of love is based, more or less, on his predecessors’ theory. His definition of love as natural inclination can be traced back to al-Junayd definition. As to his conception of divine love, we can clearly discover resemblance with that of al-Qushayri. However, we can clearly see newness in his elaboration of love and of other mystical stations, thanks to his great expertise in explanation and his various readings. Wa Allah ‘Alam wa Huwa Muwaffiquna li ma Yuhibbuh wa Yardlah.

endnotes:

[1] Eric Ormsby, Ghazali, Makers of Muslim World, p. ix.
[2] W. Montgomery Watt, Muslim Intellectual: A Study of al-Ghazali, p. 1.
[3] Margaret Smith, al-Ghazali the Mystic, p. 9.
[4] Salih Ahmad al-Shami, al-Imam al-Ghazali Hujjah al-Islam wa Mujaddid al-Mi’ah al-Khamisah, p. 20.
[5] Eric Ormsby, op. cit., p. 26.
[6] Margaret Smith, op. cit., p. 14.
[7] Salih Ahmad al-Shami, op. cit., pp. 20- 1. Cf. Margaret Smith, op. cit., pp. 15-8.
[8] Salih Ahmad al-Shami, ibid., pp. 21-5.
[9] To know the detailed process by which al-Ghazali’s life transformed see Abu Hamid Muhammad al-Ghazali (a), al-Munqidh min al-Dlalal wa al-Musil ila Dhi al-Izzah wa al-Jalal, pp. 100-6.
[10] Abu Hamid Muhammad al-Ghazali (a), ibid., p. 104.
[11] Salih Ahmad al-Shami, op. cit., p. 25-6.
[12] Margaret Smith, op. cit., p. 31.
[13] Salih Ahmad al-Shami, op. cit., p. 27-8.
[14] Quoted from Abdul Karim al-Uthman, Sirah al-Ghazali wa Aqwal al-Mutaqaddimin fih, p. 11.
[15] Eric Ormsby, op. cit., p. 90.
[16] Abd al-Rahman Badawi, Muallafat al-Ghazali, pp. 1-238.
[17] Ibid., pp. 239-76.
[18] Ibid., pp. 277-302.
[19] Ibid., pp. 303-52.
[20] Ibid., pp. 352-88.
[21] Ibid., pp. 389-426.
[22] Ibid., pp. 427-468.
[23] For detailed list see Abd al-Rahman Badawi, op. cit., pp. 2-238, which list books which authorship is certainly al-Ghazali’s.
[24] Ibid.
[25] Abd al-Rahman Badawi, op. cit., pp. 98-111.
[26] Ibid., pp.112-8.
[27] Ibid,. pp. 118-22.
[28] Eric Ormsby, op. cit., p. 111.
[29] Annemarie Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions of Islam, p. 94.
[30] Eric Ormsby, op. cit., p. 114.
[31] Ibid., p. 118.
[32] Abu Hamid Muhammad al-Ghazali (b), Ihya’ Ulum al-Din, p. 257.
[33] The Holy Qur’an, V: 54.
[34] The Holy Qur’an, II: 165.
[35] Reported by al-Tirmidhi from Ibn Abbas as a good hadith, Zayn al-Din Abd al-Rahim al-Iraqi, al-Mughni ‘an Haml al-Asfar fi al-Asfar fi Takhrij ma fi al-Ihya’ min al-Akhbar, p. 258.
[36] Abu Hamid Muhammad al-Ghazali (b), op. cit., pp. 258-9.
[37] Ibid., p. 259.
[38] Ibid. Cf. Binyamin Abrahamov, Divine Love in Islamic Mysticism, the Teachings of al-Ghazali and al-Dabbagh, p. 44.
[39] Reported by al-Nasa’i without word thalath (three), Zayn al-Din al-Iraqi, op. cit., pp. 259-60.
[40] Reported by Muslim, Zayn al-Din al-Iraqi, op. cit., p. 261.
[41] Abu Hamid Muhammad al-Ghazali (b), op. cit., pp. 260-2.
[42] Ibid., pp. 261-2.
[43] Ibid.,
[44] The Holy Qur’an, V: 54.
[45] The Holy Qur’an, LXI: 4.
[46] The Holy Qur’an, II: 222.
[47] Reported by al-Bukhari, Zayn al-Din al-Iraqi, op. cit., p. 285.
[48] Abu Hamid Muhammad al-Ghazali (b), op. cit., p. 285.
[49] Ibid., pp. 285-7.
[50 ] M. Umaruddin, The Ethical Philosophy of al-Ghazali, p. 180.
[51] Abu Bakar Muhammad al-Kalabadhi, al-Ta’arruf li Madhhab Ahl al-Tasawwuf, p. 128.
[52] Abu al-Qasim Abd al-Karim al-Qushayri, al-Risalah al-Qushayriyah fi ‘Ilm al-Tasawwuf, p. 318.
[53] Abu Nasr Abd Allah al-Sarraj, al-Luma‘ fi Tarikh al-Tasawwuf al-Islami, p. 61.





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